The Holocaust was the ultimate expression of Marr’s racial conception of anti-Semitism; all the more so because it was different in character and nature from the centuries of persecution on religious grounds that Jews had faced in Europe. The effects were devastating, even beyond the unimaginable death and torment the Nazi persecution caused (not only to Jews, it helps to recall; millions of others were slaughtered in the camps as well, though we were the primary targets). The trauma of the Holocaust for all Jews, and especially Europeans, remains very much with us to this day. The Holocaust represented the ultimate betrayal of Jewish hopes that the modern, secular ideologies of socialism, communism and liberalism would at last free us from the centuries of persecution. It convinced many Jews that we would always be at risk, that at any moment, no matter how good things seemed, the pogroms and exile would start all over again, and that the world does and would always hate us. Entire Jewish movements virtually died in the Holocaust (including several different non-Zionist nationalist movements). But there were other effects as well, different from what one might expect.